The Subjective Theory Of Truth Religion Essay

The Subjective Theory Of Truth Religion Essay According to the correspondence theory, if a statement corresponds to reality then it is considered to be truth (Hardy 32). Because there are three other truth theories, many have the wrong idea regarding what truth is and how one can know it. The three other truth theories are pragmatic, coherence, and subjective, and through the use of reason, one can determine which one is the most logical. To start, the subjective theory of truth discerns that the individual decides what is true and false based merely on his own personal desires. In other words, there is no such thing as absolute truth and what is true for you might not be true for me (Hardy 38). Absolute truth is simply the concept that there is a universal truth or a set of truths that exist and concern everyone (Hardy 40). In 2001, a study was done to determine how many Americans actually believe in absolute truth, and the result was only 38% (B.A. Robinson). Therefore 62% of Americans believe relativism in regards to reality, ethics, and even pluralism. However, behind every subjective truth, there is at least one absolute truth that can be discerned (Hardy 40). In any given situation, opinions can form, but there has to be at least one essential truth in order for those opinions to appear. For example, if there is a car accident and witnesses must tell their versions of what occurred, each person might retell the events that caused the accident a little bit differently. However, the one underlying absolute truth is that the accident did occur. In regards to moral relativism, in order for someone to say that something is good or evil, or, right or wrong, then he or she has to make an absolute truth claim. Under what standard is something immoral? If truth is relative, then one can follow their own standards and desires in regards to morality and there is no reason to argue at all. The moral implications of relativism also allude to placing the individual above God and rejecting His sovereignty. Furthermore, one can not say that someone is wrong unless that person knows what right is (Hardy, 40-41). According to Stand Your Ground by Dean Hardy, the irony of relativism is that it is completely self-defeating. Relativism cannot even pass its own test for truth (Hardy 40). In regards to the material reality, there are many ways to logically prove the subjective theory false. For example if someone declares that truth is relative, all one has to do in reply is question whether or not that is an absolute truth (Hardy 41). Therefore, it is evident that all truth claims are not inclusive. Truth must be exclusive, absolute and narrow, for an attempt to include everyone will never work (Hardy 40-41). Truth is also trans-cultural, and it is discovered not invented. Also, just because someone believes in something with all of his heart and deepest convictions, that doesnt make his belief true. This leads us into the discussion of pluralism and how all religions can not be true (Hardy 41). Pluralists argue in the analogy of the six blind men and the elephant that all six major religions have a piece of the truth but are unable to see the big picture. According to this way of thinking, if all six religions have a piece of the truth then they are all true. However, in making this claim, the pluralist has to know the whole truth. Underneath all of the subjective truths, there is still one elephant that represents absolute truth: that there is one true religion. Therefore, in using this analogy, pluralists claim the opposite of what they teach: that there has to be only one spiritual and religious path. If one is to discern whether or not pluralism is true based on a logical standpoint, then one can show that all six major religions teach opposites. In Christianity, for example, salvation is achieved by faith alone in Christ alone. However in Hinduism, one achieves salvation by overcoming reincarnation with good works. The two cant both be true (Hardy 39). Should we be skeptical about everything? Lord Byron once said In short, I deny nothing, but doubt everything. The question of whether or not reality is an illusion certainly harps at the hearts of many. The ideologies of skepticism, idealism and realism present ways to answer the question of metaphysics and how one knows what is truly real. We should most definitely not be skeptical about everything, for it is evident that there is both a material and spiritual reality. There is most definitely a difference between the physical existence of a chair in the outside world and the immaterial existence of a chair inside ones mind. The two both share the same essence, for they both have legs, a back and a seat for one to sit on. However, the two differ with existence, for one is physically real and the other is not (Hardy 17). In this situation, an idealist would believe that the only real chair would be the chair fabricated in his mind. Therefore, the idea of the chair is more real than the chair itself. A skeptic, however, would simply doubt the ability to prove that a chair existed at all. According to the skeptic, ones senses are faulty (Hardy 18). Because I am a realist, I firmly believe that the computer I used to type this paper is real and so are the ideas that I have formulated in my mind. Even though one can not prove everything with 100% certainty, it is still probable that anything can still exist as real. For example, one cant prove with 100% certainty that Christianity is real (Hardy 3). Although there are logical conclusions and arguments to prove Christianity to be true, there is always room for faith. One can not go back in time and physically prove that Jesus existed, and this is why there is room for faith (Hardy 3). However, one can know anything with 100% certainty. In regards to mathematics, one can know that the equation 2+2 will always equal 4. This is real and one can know it for certain (Hardy 15-16). Dean Hardy states in Stand Your Ground that if we could not be sure if our statements and ideas correspond to a real thing, then there could be no such thing as truth or knowledge (Hardy 19). So even though i t is in our human nature to doubt things, such as Lord Byron did in the statement above, that doesnt mean that no knowledge is absolute or that, nothing is real. I dont think that there is a God, is there any proof that He exists? There are three main arguments that are used to prove Gods existence. They are the cosmological, teleological and moral arguments. Each argument starts with certain presuppositions and then leads one into understanding that there must be an infinite God who exists outside of the universe. My favorite is the teleological argument because it proves that there must be a God based on the knowledge that the universe is intelligently designed. The logical syllogism is as follows: Everything that has design has a designer. The universe has design; therefore the universe must have a Designer (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 20). In using the rules of logic and argumentation found in Stand Your Ground, this is a categorical syllogism where the conclusion of the argument is both true and valid (Hardy 57-60). To start, there are many ways to prove that the universe has design. One of the most famous illustrations of this utilizes the concept of a watch and a watchmaker. In reality, a watch is comprised of natural elements from the universe. However, a watch has never just randomly formed out in nature. Even if one were to line up all of the essential parts of the watch together outside, one would know that the only way a watch could function is if someone intelligently constructed its parts together, and nature cant do that! Therefore it is safe to say that nature randomizes and intelligence organizes (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 20). In addition, many use the study of the anthropic principle to further conclude that the universe must have a designer. The anthropic principle mandates that our universe is designed so that even subtle changes in its atmosphere, oxygen or carbon dioxide levels would cause drastic results. One such example is that the oxygen level must comprise approximately 21% our atmosphere. If it was only 15% all life would suffocate and if it was 25% all life would burn (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 20). Also, never before has a scientist been able to construct a living cell, for it contains nearly 1,000 volumes of encyclopedic information (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 20)! Furthermore, the concept of specified complexity serves to prove that chance can not order the universe. In Apologetics class, the example of a group of monkeys typing a work of Shakespeare proves this point, for although they were given long periods of time to sit in front of a computer screen with a work of Shakespeare beside them, none of them were able to type a complete work. This proves that time added to chance will not equal order or even design. The point of this serves to prove that the chance of the universe creating itself is not only illogical but completely unsound (Hardy 90-91). In order to prove that the Designer from th e teleological argument is the God of Christianity, the other three arguments need to be used to correspond with the Bibles teachings (Hardy 100). Is the Bible merely mythical stories? Many unbelievers feel that the Bible is a book of mythical stories and that its teachings are ultimately false and insubstantial. However, even though I agree to some extent that the Bible includes both literal and figurative stories, I would still argue that the Bible is inspired or God-breathed (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 3). As 2 Timothy 3:16-17 states, All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, thoroughly equipped for every good work. First and foremost, the Bible is a historical book, which can be verified by past secular historical events. For example, the New Testament book Acts and the Old Testament books of Joshua, Ruth, Chronicles and 1st and 2nd Kings (just to name a few) are all deemed historical books and pertain to actual events that occurred in the past. Therefore, the whole Bible can not be deemed mythological (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 4). In addition, there are many non-Christian sources that can be used to verify the teachings of the Bible as accurate in correlation to events in history (Hardy 114). According to Stand Your Ground by Dean Hardy, there are more non-Christian sources that promote Christs existence than there are sources that discuss the existence of Emperor Tiberius Caesar Augustus during the 1st century (Hardy 117). Notable men including Roman historians Tacitus and Suetonis, the Roman governor Pliny the Younger and Jewish historian Josephus have all written accounts about the existence of not only Christ but also the truth to a lot of historical claims in the Bible (Hardy 116-118). Also, one of my favorite books of the Old Testament, Psalms, contains poetry. Even though one might argue that this book is mythological, I would refer back to how many of the verses in Psalms predict prophecy. For example, Psalm 22 predicts the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, how He was mocked on the cross and how many tempted Him to show that He was the one and only true God (Henson, Judaism 16). Above, I mentioned how many of the secular accounts confirming Christs existence give mention to His death under Pontius Pilate and His resurrection (Hardy 116-118).The statement above proves that the Bible is internally consistent, something that could not just be a compilation of random mythological stories. Lastly, to those who argue that the flood was a foolish myth, and that God did not start the first woman with a rib, Jesus Christ confirmed the validity of these events in the verses of Matthew 24:38 and Matthew 19:4-5 (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology, 3). In addition, it is very bold for one to claim that all 66 books of the Bible, written by 40 different authors, on 3 different continents in 3 different languages over a period of 1500 years, is completely mythical (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology, 4). Therefore, I believe that the book of the Bible is not a compilation of mythical stories. 5. Why must God be an infinite being? Why cant there be multiple Gods, and why cant God be limited? The common definition of the word infinite is having no limits (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 7). However, a more appropriate definition when describing Gods characteristics of omnipotence, omnibenevolence, omniscience, omnipresence, eternalness and immutableness is unlimited perfection (Hardy 75). God must be an infinite being because He is uncaused and outside of the universe. Because God is uncaused, nothing is causing Him to be and therefore He simply is who He is, or, He is pure actuality (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 7). If nothing is limiting God then God must be infinite and unable to lack (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 7). However, the concepts of deism, maltheism, and finite Godism support the notion that God is a finite being, or a being that is limited in perfection (Hardy 75) If God is a finite being, then something had to cause Him to be, and if God had a cause, then He cant be God. Therefore it is safe to say that one would have to regress back in time to find an infinite being, which would then be called God (Hardy 96-97). Deists claim that God created the world and everything in it, but then decided to let the world just run on its own. This implies that God is not omnipotent, for He lacks the ability to perform miracles, and that God is not omnibenevolent, for He lacks the ability to love and care for His creation (Hardy 78). In addition, Maltheists claim that God is evil, but if He is omnibenevolent, He doesnt have the potential to be evil. For God does not have the potential to be anything other than who He is, and that is an all-loving, good being (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 7). Lastly, finite Godists project the notion that God lacks and through the reason Ive given above, it is impossible for God to lack or else Hed be finite. In addition to Gods inability to lack, Polytheists argue that there are many finite Gods that rule the universe. However, it is true that something is distinguished by what it lacks rather than what it has. In order to distinguish these lesser gods apart, one would have to lack something the other god didnt have, and vice versa (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 7). If something lacks, then that something had a cause and therefore can not be the infinite God of the universe (Hardy 80). How do you know that the infinite being you believe in is the God of the Bible? According to Psalm 145:3, Great is the Lord and most worthy of praise; His greatness no one can fathom. There are many verses in the Bible that prove the infinite being who created the universe must be the God of Christianity. As mentioned before, God is omnipotent, omnibenevolent, omniscient, omnipresent, and immutable. He is also holy, relational, just, and righteous (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 8-9). To start, verse Matthew 19:26 states, Jesus looked at them and said, With man this is impossible, but with God all things are possible.' This verse shows how God is an all powerful being, something that man could never be. Also, one can see Gods love for man in Romans 5:8, which states But God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us. The Lord sent down His only son so that our sins could be forgiven and that we could have eternal life if we choose to come to know Him. Next, Psalm 139: 1-2 states, O Lord, you have searched me and you know me. You know when I sit and when I rise; you perceive my thoughts from afar. This shows how God is all knowing. In addition, Gods omnipresence can be shown thorough verse Jeremiah 23:24 where the Lord questions, Can anyone hide in secret places so that I cannot see himdo not I fill heaven and earth? Lastly, the God of Christianity is immutable, which means that He is unable to change (Henson, Introduc tion to Christian Theology 8). In Malachi 3:6, the Lord states, I the Lord do not change. So you, O descendants of Jacob, are not destroyed. These are just a few examples that describe how the God of the universe must be the God of Christianity. 7. If there is a God and He is omnipotent, omni benevolent, and omniscient, why is there evil? I mean, if He created everything, then didnt create evil? In order to understand this question, one should reference the beginning of Genesis when the Lord created both Adam and Eve. Genesis 2:16-17 states And the Lord God commanded the man, You are free to eat from any tree in the garden; but you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.' Here, the Lord gave Adam an ultimatum. He gave him the choice to obey or disobey and He later gave the same choice to Eve. Adam and Eve were created without original sin and therefore were perfect in the eyes of God. However, the Lord gave man the free will to commit sin by choosing evil. In the story of Genesis, the serpent was the tempter. He told Eve in Genesis 3:5 that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦God knows that when you eat of it you eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil. So now after reading this verse, the question becomes whether or not God created evil and if He did, why He created it. God did not create evil. However, God created a perfect world where only good existed, but because He gave man free will, evil came into the world (Hardy 106). When people think of evil, many think of tragedies, times of adversity, even murder, however, they do forget that evil is the lack of something, or as Thomas Aquinas called it, the privation of a thing (Hardy 106). Evil is the lack of anything good. In Stand Your Ground by Dean Hardy, the example of a bucket with a hole in it is considered to be evil for its opening causes it to lack (Hardy 106). When God created the world, He essentially had two choices: one was to create a world where everyone was forced to be obedient to Him and the other was to give all of man kind the option to worship Him or not (Hardy 107-108). To further explain, the fall of man, which was the result of Adam and Eves first sin, enabled us to distinguish good from evil by the standard which God created. One can use empiricism to deduce that the world we live in is full of suffering, disease, pain, wrath, and heartache (just to name a few.) However, in order to understand why an omnibenevolent, omnipotent, omniscient God would allow these things to enter the once perfect world, one has to understand the importance of Satan and Satans desires. In Mr. Hensons Christian Theology class I learned that Satan uses humans to accomplish his purposes, but God uses demons to accomplish His purposes (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology, 14). In all honesty, if there wasnt suffering and evil in the world, would we ever choose to pursue an all-loving God? Wouldnt you rather want to have the choice to pursue good or evil in this life, and learn from you experiences in times of suffering? Furthermore, dont we need to know what evil i s in order to comprehend that an all-loving, just God even exists? I firmly believe that God hurts when He sees His creation suffering but dont those times of suffering bring us closer to Him? God allowed evil to enter the world so that His creation can come to know Him and pursue Him in a world full of darkness. The only possible explanation of our existence is natural selection. In response to this statement, natural selection is only one idea or concept regarding our existence in the universe. Another idea happens to be the concept of intelligent design as it pertains to the universes complexity. Debaters are in constant disagreement over the two and the argument is still extremely prevalent in todays society. However, in studying the concept of irreducible complexity, one can prove that evolutionism is false. The most famous evolutionist, Charles Darwin, even stated something along the lines of if irreducible complexity were to be proven true then evolution cant be (Hardy, Chapter 7 Notes). The concept of irreducible complexity, which was formulated by Michael Behe, goes hand in hand with the teleological argument to prove Gods existence. The human cell is a complex structure made up of interdependent parts (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 20). If even one of these parts were to be removed, the cell would cease to function. This disproves the concept of macro-evolution or the idea that minor changes over time have enabled drastic changes to occur in a given species (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 21). In Apologetics class I learned about another example regarding irreducible complexity: the human eye. In order for the human eye to function, all of its interacting parts must exist together. One can not claim to have 25% of an eye, because that absolutely makes no sense! Gradual changes over time could not have occurred because all of that organs parts would have had to have formed at the same time. In addition, another one of Darwins theories is gr adualism or the notion that new traits form in the DNA code. However, scientist Gregor Mendel confirmed that our genetic make-up is hereditary or produced by the pre-existing traits of our parents (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 20). Lastly, the concept of microevolution can even be used to support the existence of God. According to Mr. Henson, a wise Creator would create flexibility within the gene pool to enable survival under any given environment, and to show His artistic creativity. This shows preplanning and purpose, which implies design (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 21). What makes Jesus so different? What did He say that was so unique? Verse John 1:35 states John saw Jesus coming toward him and said, Look the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world. Here one can fully understand the importance of Christs sacrifice for humankind and how He was more than just a man. Jesus Christ is the epitome of the new covenant God established with His people in the New Testament. Because Christ died for us, our sins can be forgiven. He essentially is the propitiation for our sins, meaning took our punishment for sin (Henson, Christian Theology 3). In the New Testament, Jesus performed miracles, He was worshipped, He forgave sins, He answered prayers, and although He was a man, He was without sin. Here one can see Jesus divine nature when He lived (Henson, Christian Theology 15). An example of Christ performing miracles is seen in Mark 1:25-26, which reveals: Be quiet! said Jesus sternly. Come out of him! The evil spirit shook the man violently and came out of him with a shriek. An example of Christ exclaiming how He is the Son of God is seen in John 14:6 where Jesus answered, I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me. An example of Christ forgiving ones sins can be seen in Luke 7:48 which remarks, Then Jesus said to her, Your sins are forgiven.' In reference to prayer Jesus tells His disciples in Matthew 6:6, But when you pray, go into your room, close the door and pray to your Father, who is unseen. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret will reward you.' These all show h ow Jesus was a Divine Teacher who brought people to pursue the unseen God. In response to those who believe that Jesus did not claim to be God but only His son, in verse John 10:30 Jesus remarks I and the Father are one. Throughout His life on earth, it is recorded that Christ spoke many things and was more than just a good man. Why do Christians believe that there are three Gods in one? Isnt this Polytheism? The concept of the Trinity holds that there are three persons in one God. The reason why Christians believe that there are three persons in one God is because God is a relational being. In using the moral argument, one can deduce that the Moral Law Giver (the God of Christianity) has to be moral and relational because not only is He the standard for right and wrong but the concept of morality without relationships does not make sense (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 18). For example, one can not lie to a rock or some non-living creature. If one were to slap his desk or slap his little sister, which one would you consider morally wrong? Relationships are necessary in order for morals to exist. With that being said, If God is eternal, then He must be in an eternal relationship, which shows how God is not dependent on His temporal creation, for that would put limits on Him (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 18). Furthermore, if God is in an eternal relationship then He must be multi-personal, for He is the only true, infinite God. The reason why relationships are so valuable for human beings is because we were created in the image of God (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 18). To further explain the concept of the Trinity, within God there is the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. All three are of the same substance' and are not separate from each other. John 1:1-2 states In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning. The emphasis of Word in the above verse serves to emphasize how the Christ is God and was always God from the beginning of time. The reason why the concept of the Trinity is not polytheism is because even though the three persons within God are equal, they are economically distinct, which means that they serve different functions. The Father created the Earth, He is in charge over everything, while the Son is the mediator between God and man and lastly, the Holy Spirit convicts man of sin and immorality through guilt and shame (Henson, Introduction to Christian Theology 21). What does a person have to do to become a Christian? Why is it necessary? Couldnt you just be good and get into heaven? The infamous statement found in Ephesians 2:8-9 entails For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God not by works, so that no one can boast. Here it is evident that Jesus Christ is the mediator between God and man and through His sacrifice, humankind can come to salvation if they choose to worship Him. In order to become a Christian, one has to fully accept Christ as Gods Son and by worshipping Him, one can reap eternal life. In addition, in order for one to truly know God and believe in Christ as the Savior of humankind, one has to live a life devoted to God. This means, that one can not just sin on Monday and repent on Sunday in Church and claim himself a Christian. Christians need to put forth an initiative to shy away from sin and learn to live a life here on Earth devoted to God. Even though Ephesians 2:8-9 states that it is not by works, I believe that if one truly knows God then those works will evidence in his life through the power of the Holy Spirit. In my opinion, the above question as to whether or not good people can get into heaven without believing in Christ is a conundrum. For can anyone truly be good if the Holy Spirit is not working miracles inside of them? Can anyone truly be good if they do not know God, or if they do not claim Christ as their Savior? It is evident that because God is omnibenevolent, His creation can not even try to be good without having God working somehow miraculously in their lives. Believing in Christ is an essential for salvation, but because I am a Catholic, I believe that good works are a direct byproduct of faith in Christ and that for one to be good, God has to be inside of them. Where are you at in your spiritual journey? When I was 12 years old, I lost my aunt to breast cancer and due to a family disagreement, I also lost my favorite cousins. I had just graduated from 5th grade and I just couldnt understand why JoAnne and Gerard were no longer a part of my life. As I type this, I can remember all of the times we shared: spontaneous sleepovers, watching the fireworks show that they put on every Fourth of July, every single Christmas Eve that I can remember, all of the tickle wars that I never seemed to win, and the times when we would swim all day in their backyard pool. I never knew what it was like to lose someone you truly loved and cared for with all of your heart or what it would be like to never see them or hear from them again. I lost my two role-models, the people that I looked up to and could never wait to visit. However, even through this painful experience, Ive never shut God out of my life completely. Through the hard years, I always prayed to God to not only help me understand why this wa s happening but also for my cousins that I no longer knew. This experience never brought me really close to God, it kind of kept me at bay even though I never completely shut Him out of my life. However while I tried to block this experience from my mind and move on, adversity entered my life in a completely, different unexpected way. The first day of my sophomore year of high school, my mother had a stroke, and from this experience I learned how important my family was in my life. From this point on, I feel as though my faith has grown tremendously, not only because Ive grown in a Christian environment but because God used these experiences to help me come to know Him. Even though I cant really explain how, I know that God works in mysterious ways, especially in my life and He has so many things planned for me. The experience with my mom shocked our family and made us realize that we were ignoring God for earthly desires. When all of this was happening, I completely detested ever going to Charlotte Christian, but i know that God made everything happen the way it did because it has made me a stronger woman in my faith and personal journey with the Lord. Even now, these past few months, Ive been trying to have a new relationship with my cousins but because all of this time has passed, I dont even know where to start. I pray to God every night about how I can know them again, even though I know it wont ever be the same. Right now a lot of change is going to happen for me and even though it has been hard I honestly have put all of my faith in knowing that God knows whats best for me. Im reading book called God Always has a Plan B, and it has just been helping me get through college rejections and acceptances. I have no idea where I am going to end up, but I know that God has definitely made it clear where He does not want me to go. I have completely accepted Jesus Christ as my Savior and I try every day to live according to Gods plan. I know that Im not perfect and I have many faults, but I know that God sees my strengths and talents for Im created in His image. After having the opportunity to take classes such as Christian Theology and Apologetics, I feel as though my faith has been challenged and Im glad that I am able to question and not be afraid. I have had doubts enter my mind of course, but they have just served to make my faith stronger. I dont know where I would be today if I didnt have God actively working my life. I dont understand how some people can live everyday and not feel like theres something out there thats greater than we could ever be. As one chapter in my life comes to an end, I know that my spiritual journey will continue to become a larger part of me. Even though I have had painful experiences, God has blessed me with the ability to ch

Lord of the Flies, Coral Island and the Role of Adults

It is known that to fully appreciate the novel â€Å"Lord of the Flies† (1954) by William Golding (1911-1993) it is necessary to have read Robert Michael Ballantyne’s (1825-1894) â€Å"Coral Island† (1858), or at least to understand its theme and treatment. And so, since it was Golding’s intention to set himself to write an island story that deliberately challenged Ballantyne’s model in â€Å"Coral Island† -by inverting its assumptions and values- we can explore multiple angles from which the two novels can be compared and studied.An item which seems quite interesting when analysing both texts is that one related to civilization and its adult exponents. After a thorough reading and focusing on very clear and specific elements we happen to notice the differences -as well as some similarities- among the roles and the significance of these adult characters in each novel. We will first refer to Golding’s â€Å"Lord of the Flies†, in which there are various examples of the complexity of the adult figure. But we must first refer to Golding’s own experience at war in order to get a clearer picture of his position towards our central concern.From the first years of his life, he faced the atrocities of war when he took part in the Second World War by joining the British Navy at 1940. The war, as a physical result, changed a lot Golding's view of life. He could not believe in man's innocence any longer. He found that even the children are not innocent. No one is innocent. The ideas of W. Golding's view of human nature can be found in almost any of Golding's books and particularly, in his first and most famous book, â€Å"Lord of the flies† 1. So, let us now focus on the novel itself.At a moment of uncertainty-anguish the boys beg desperately for a signal from the world of grown-ups: (â€Å"Grown-ups know things† said Piggy. â€Å"They ain’t afraid of the dark. They’d meet and have tea and discuss. Then things ‘ud be all right—† â€Å"They wouldn’t set fire to the island. Or lose—-† â€Å"They’d build a ship—-â€Å" The three boys stood in the darkness, striving unsuccessfully to convey the majesty of adult life. â€Å"They wouldn’t quarrel—-† [†¦] â€Å"If only they could get a message to us,† cried Ralph desperately. â€Å"If only they could send us something grown-up†¦ a sign or something. 2) In the next chapter what they get is a dead body of a man hanging from a parachute, a corpse which gets rotten as the story advances. Is this the adult figure they were waiting for? Or, should the question be: Does this ‘gift’ from air help them in any way to strengthen their boundaries with civilization? The answer seems to be ‘no’. On the contrary, it makes them panic, slowly driving them mad and irrational. It unleashes violence, leads them to sa crifices and murder, and takes them back to a primitive stage.So up to now the adult figure does not seem to be associated with a positive role. However, there is another character in the novel who also becomes very important as regards our analysis of the adult figure. Finally, when on the last pages, Ralph is lying on the sand, ready to accept the blow which will kill him, and he hears the silence around him, and he looks up †¦ up†¦ , he can first see some emblems of power, some symbols of the grown ups’ world and also of his father authority, and only then he can see a man – a naval officer. This man happens to stop Ralph’s brutal chase just by chance. Grown-ups have been dropping bombs and planes, and it was an atomic war which had made the children’s evacuation necessary in the first place. Who have gone crazy and been having an atomic war but the grown-ups themselves? 3 Again, a new question should be made: Is this a real symbol of salvati on? Or, How can an ambassador of an atomic war stand for the parental protection or even a mature model to be followed? The naval officer’s ignorance, his lack of understanding of what has been going on, is ironical. Furthermore, what Golding is trying to make clear at this instance is the decadent figure of the human adult, and by extension, of the whole human civilized world. Let us now turn to R. M. Ballantyne’s â€Å"Coral Island†. Here, the concern about civilization, seems to be very well defined as well as good and evil are so clearly separated that there cannot be any conflict between them. 5 In spite of this, when we come to a closer look we find a special complexity within a number of characters. Everything about Ballantyne’s boys, who are older by some years than Golding’s boys, is confident and positive.The novel as a whole, pictures the assumptions and values of the Victorian period in affirming progress, imperialism, self-reliance, th e Creator, the goodness of nature and of human nature- when Christianised at least 6 Actually, this is quite an interesting item to focus on. On the one hand there are the dark-skinned people referred to as â€Å"the savages†, who are in fact the native inhabitants from the neighbouring islands. They are a kind of primitive adults, constantly characterised as cruel, uncivilised inferior beings.Their rituals, their form of life, the whole of their culture is described as barbarian and demoniac and Ralph, our young narrator, is deeply horrified at seeing them. They represented a menace to the boys, and they tried to escape from them or to stay in good – but distant- terms with them, so as to keep them away from their coral island. On the other hand there are the pirates, who, paradoxically, are –like the rest of the fair-skinned characters- superior ; their ways are civilised, their clothes being the main symbol of their superiority. What is interesting about thes e last ones is that they are at first described as representing a dangerous element –as had already been the shark or the very ocean. Nevertheless, as the novel goes on, we are made to think that this wandering adults who travel overseas, robbing ships, conquering all that they found at their pace and kidnapping people, are actually ‘not that bad’. Even the pirates are â€Å"better† than the natives, more intelligent, cleaner, etc.But also, as we reach the end of the novel, we suddenly meet some educated peaceful missionaries who work a miracle when they get to the island the boys are captured in and manage to convert the wild savages into Christians and they embrace our Lord’s Gospel. It must be understood that the priest’s reason for being there is to abolish the beliefs of an entire human group and the pirates are traditionally thought of as being thieves, kidnappers and violent conquerors. But, somehow, this is not the image Ballantyne de picts towards the end of the novel. Given, thus, the complex nature of these beings, a new different question arises.What is the true nature of adults-civilization for Ballantyne? How come that adults like the priest and the pirates can be representatives of good or salvation? Are the adults capable of completely changing their previous evil nature all of a sudden? Obviously, the answer seems to rely on the moral outlook, the Victorian ethos, which bathes the whole novel. The didactic intentions are clear. His intentions are to teach his readers, not only to inform them about the wonders and terrors of the Pacific Islands, but also to make them reflect on the power, goodness, glory of God and make them better people. As a result, by comparing and contrasting both novels from the opposed perspectives of the two authors , we identify the key elements inherent to each one as regards our main topic. Basically, while in Ballantyne’s â€Å"Coral Island† the prevalent view of man was that based on the confidence of the white man 9 in Golding’s â€Å"Lord of the Flies† the thesis is based on the man’s fallen nature myth, expressing through it his belief in man’s other nature, the dark and guilty nature. 0 Mainly, both Ballantyne and Golding’s perceptions about adulthood and civilization vary not only because of a completely divergent perception on the world -which derives from their personal experiences- but also because of the time when each novel was written and the totally different socio-political scenery in which they were developed. 1 Material obtained from http://www. geocities. com/Athens/Forum/6249/bio. htm 2 â€Å"The Lord of the Flies†, by William Golding (p. 117) Faber and Faber Limited (1954) 3 Notes provided by the teacher on â€Å"The Lord of the Flies† by William Golding. Notes provided by the teacher on â€Å"The Lord of the Flies† by William Golding. 5 Notes provided by the teacher on â€Å"The Lord of the Flies† by William Golding. 6 Notes provided by the teacher on â€Å"Coral Island† by R. M. Ballantyne. 7 Macmillan Master Guide, The Lord of the Flies, 1986 8 Notes provided by the teacher on â€Å"Coral Island† by R. M. Ballantyne. 9 Notes provided by the teacher on â€Å"Coral Island† by R. M. Ballantyne. 10 Notes provided by the teacher on â€Å"Coral Island† by R. M. Ballantyne. 11Macmillan Master Guide, The Lord of the Flies, 1986

Overview and Criticisms of Andragogy

Andragogy, the art and scientific discipline of learning grownups, is based on a set of nucleus premises about why and how grownups learn. The first premise is that grownups are autonomous ( Knowles, 1984 ) . As a consequence, grownups learn best when their acquisition procedure can be autonomous, instead than centered in a traditional, dependent educational environment. Second, grownups have both a greater figure of experiences from which to larn and a wider assortment of experiences upon which they can pull ( Knowles, 1984 ) . Third, grownup function development plays an of import portion in spurring acquisition in grownups ( Knowles, 1984 ) . For illustration, as a individual ages and takes on new functions such as that of a attention supplier to a kid or an aged parent, that person has the demand to larn new accomplishments. A 4th premise is that, because grownup acquisition is straight related to adult development, grownup acquisition is focused on work outing jobs or executing new undertakings ( Knowles, 1984 ) . Finally, Knowles ( 1984 ) assumes that grownups are chiefly driven by internal incentives and non external forces. Criticisms of Andragogy Both Lee ( 2003 ) and Sandlin ( 2005 ) describe multiple reviews of Knowles ‘ ( 1984 ) five premises. Lee ( 2003 ) challenges andragogy on the footing that it falsely incorporates the importance of context. Harmonizing to Lee ( 2003 ) , andragogy is an individualistic construct, concentrating merely on the context a learner brings from his or her ain experiences. Andragogy fails to see that the person does non be in a vacuity and that persons have many individualities that may â€Å" impact their positions of acquisition and ways of battle in the acquisition procedure † ( Lee, 2003, p. 12 ) . Sandlin ( 2005 ) undertook an integrative literature reappraisal that found that critical theoreticians found andragogy to be missing in five major and interconnected ways. First, andragogy dainties education as a impersonal, nonpolitical activity. Second, the full construct is based on a â€Å" generic † scholar who tends to be white, male, and in-between category. Third, andragogy appears to value merely one manner of knowing and ignores voices that do non suit into the theory. Fourth, the construct is about wholly individualistic, disregarding the importance of context. Finally, andragogy does non dispute the prevalent societal construction, even if that societal construction promotes inequality ( Sandlin, 2005 ) .My PremisesIn developing my ain premises for andragogy, I have incorporated non merely the reviews presented by Lee ( 2003 ) and Sandlin ( 2005 ) but besides those based on my ain experiences as an grownup scholar and as a instructor of grownups. Most of them refl ect the simple fact that worlds are frequently complicated. My first premise is that grownups may be self-directed in their acquisition journeys, but they may besides elect to set about a acquisition procedure because they are directed to make so by an external force. This premise addresses Sandlin ‘s ( 2005 ) review that andragogy is based on the thought that there is a generic scholar. Men and adult females may hold really different grounds for desiring to larn certain things, for illustration. As an pedagogue, it is of import to listen to the voices of your pupils. Second, grownups may hold been about longer but that does non intend they are capable of larning from their experiences. Most people go through life holding experience after experience, but non all of those experiences are capable of supplying a minute of larning. In add-on, non everyone is interested in or capable of believing about their experiences in such a manner as to larn something from them. This premise incorporates the unfavorable judgment that andragogy, as it was originally presented, merely valued one manner of larning – that of larning from experience ( Sandlin, 2005 ) . A 3rd premise is that grownups may larn non merely to develop the accomplishments and cognition needed for a new developmental function but besides to turn to a demand within their community. This premise addresses the concerns of both Lee ( 2003 ) and Sandlin ( 2005 ) that andragogy is excessively focused on the person and non focused plenty on the societal context of the person or on the demand for persons to turn to unfairness in community. At times, our communities may name us to set about a new function for which we need new accomplishments. In other instances, an grownup might see a job within the community and put out to larn what is needed in order to work towards a solution. Andragogy must admit that larning is non merely about the person. A 4th premise is that grownups might desire to larn to work out jobs but they might besides larn merely because larning is merriment. Again, this is a reaction to the unfavorable judgment that andragogy posits a generic scholar ( Sandlin, 2005 ) . Adults learn for many grounds. An grownup who is researching a new avocation or larning a new athletics may non really be trying to work out a job. Rather, they may be larning because it is fun to make. Finally, grownups might hold multiple motives for larning peculiar things at specific times. We may so be driven to larn for a sense of interior accomplishment, but we may besides be driven to larn so that we can conflict our kid ‘s school territory when they deny our kid something he or she needs. Learning can be a extremely political activity and acquisition can take to political activity ( Sandlin, 2005 ) . Andragogy should ne'er presume that grownup motive to larn is entirely driven by internal demands and desires. Using grounds you select from your readings explicate how race, gender and sexual orientation can impact grownup development or acquisition. Please supply CONCRETE illustrations of EACH positionality ( e.g. one illustration for race, one illustration for gender, and one illustration for sexual orientation ) . ( Hint: Narratives from Adult Learning and Development: Multicultural Narratives may be a good topographic point to get down when seeking to reply this inquiry. ) ( 3 points ) Race, gender, and sexual orientation, in add-on to other personal identifiers such as category, can positively and negatively affect both grownup development and acquisition. In this essay, I briefly examine several concrete illustrations of the relationship between development or acquisition and a scholar ‘s race or cultural individuality, gender, and sexual orientation.Race and Ethnic IdentityRace and cultural individuality can impact larning in a assortment of ways. First, race and cultural individuality can act upon what is of import or proper for an person to larn. La Tortillera, a short narrative by Patricia Preciado Martin ( 2000 ) , provides a good illustration of how race and gender intersect in finding what it is proper for, in this instance, a Latina to larn. In this civilization, it is of import for a adult female and a female parent to larn how to do tortillas for her household. Her female parent shows Ms. Martin over and over once more how to do tortillas, even th ough Ms. Martin finds the tortilla doing lessons to be thwarting non merely because she can ne'er acquire them merely right but besides because they are a reminder of her insufficiencies as a Latina adult female and a female parent. How persons of specific races and cultural individualities are treated can besides play a critical function in how persons experience acquisition. Because of racism, minority pupils are less likely to finish postsecondary instruction ( Swail, 2003 ) . Unfortunately, in a racialist and classist system, minorities frequently attend ill funded schools that lack modern equipment and text editions or that are insecure. If they enroll in college or in an big instruction plan, they may still hold to cover with the long-run effects of racism. Over 50 % of Black alumnus pupils, for illustration, reported being the marks of racist actions on campus and experienced â€Å" isolation, solitariness, disjunction, and favoritism † as a consequence ( Johnson-Bailey, Valentine, Cervero, & A ; Bowles, 2009, p. 192 ) . The affect of racism on larning need non be wholly negative, nevertheless. Developing a strong sense of ego in the face of racism can take scholars to reengage with their civilizations and communities. â€Å" Such bitterness can be directed by more deeply prosecuting with and repossessing one ‘s civilization, history, and heritage, and thereby redefining what it means to be ‘me, ‘ instead than defined ( be either oneself or the dominant civilization ) harmonizing to what one is non aˆÂ ¦ â€Å" ( Smith & A ; Taylor, 2010, p. 53 ) .GenderGender can besides present challenges to the development and larning experiences of adult females and work forces. In the acquisition environment she was analyzing, Cain ( 2002 ) described a state of affairs in which a really traditional power moral forces based on gender developed. The adult females attempted to develop consensus among all participants, while a little group of males took over the meetings and ignored the voic es of everyone else in the room. The lessons for all involved were tragic. â€Å" The importance of this for acquisition is that so many of the initial participants, including all the adult females, learned that their parts were non valued and they quit the group † ( Cain, 2000, p. 70 ) . The work forces ‘s developmental procedure had taught them that their voices were the most of import, and, as a consequence, they ignored and alienated other voices that could hold brought a great trade of cognition to the work. Another illustration that shows how gender can act upon the acquisition experiences of work forces and adult females can be seen in Michael Dorris ‘ ( 2000 ) short narrative Groom Service. In the narrative, Bernard and Marie both exhibit behaviours they have learned as the appropriate behaviours for their gender. What Bernard learns, in peculiar, is described in the narrative. Bernard ‘s accomplishments include runing. â€Å" Subsequently he thought about hunting, how he could hold succeeded the times he had failed, how the animate beings behaved, how they smelled and sounded † ( Dorris, 2000, p. 219 ) . Bernard besides learns proper behaviour around his hereafter in-laws, with whom he will populate in this matrilinear society.Sexual OrientationLike race and gender, sexual orientation can both positively and negatively affect development and acquisition. For illustration, if they are non â€Å" out † to their household, friends, or instructors, sapphic, bise xual, homosexual, and transgender ( LGBT ) pupils may endure from anxiousness about their sexual orientation ( Messinger, 2004 ) . They may make up one's mind to remain in the cupboard because they fear that being unfastened about their orientation might take to violence against them ( Messinger, 2004 ) . They may besides fear that their parents will retreat fiscal and emotional support from them ( Freedman, 2009 ) . As with persons who grow stronger by confronting racism, pupils who develop strong self-identities in the face of homophobia can come through the experience stronger. They frequently show a more extremely developed sense of empathy and better critical thought accomplishments than those who have non had to confront the same challenges ( Messinger, 2004 ) . You have taken Howard Gardner ‘s Multiple Intelligence Test online. You are in charge of developing resident hall helpers. Their highest multiple intelligence is one of your underside three intelligences based on your trial consequences. List your group ‘s acquisition manner and supply a class rubric ( .25 point ) Supply one class aim ( see the CAHA 501 class course of study or seek information on the cyberspace to decently word a class nonsubjective if you do non hold experience composing aims ) . ( .75 point ) Describe how you would learn that nonsubjective to your pupils based on their learning manner. Use concrete illustrations ( at least two ) and do a clear and direct connexion between the acquisition manner and accomplishing the instruction of your aim. ( 2 points )Learning Styles and My Training CourseMy underside three intelligences were societal ( 3.14 ) , body motion ( 3.00 ) , and spacial ( 3.00 ) . For the intents of this essay, my resident hall helpers will be strongest in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Learners that excel in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence frequently use parts of their organic structure or their full organic structure as they work through the acquisition procedure ( Smith 2002, 2008 ) . As a consequence, they learn best through hands-on exercisings, including edifice things and function playing ( Armstrong, 2009 ) . The class I will be offering them as portion of their preparation is â€Å" Helping the International Student Transition to American Higher Education. † The class aim is to develop empathy among resident hall helpers for the challenges that international pupils face when get downing college in the United States.Training ExercisesArmstrong ( 2009 ) suggests that one method to prosecute pupils with strong kinaesthetic acquisition intelligence is to function drama or move out what you want them to larn. To assist resident hall helpers gain a better apprehension of what it is like to be an international pupil go toing college in the United States for the first clip, I will offer a function playing exercising. In the exercising, the scholars will draw a scenario out of a chapeau. They will hold to function drama either an international pupil confronting a barrier or challenge or a resident hall helper tasked with assisting the pupil work through the state of affairs. An illustratio n of one scenario that the trainees might move out would be that of a South Korean female pupil who has been harassed by other pupils for walking arm in arm with her female friends. While this is a common behaviour for immature adult females in South Korea, in the United States, it can put pupils up for homophobic torment. The function of the occupant hall helper in this scenario would be to assist the South Korean pupil understand why they are being harassed and to speak through schemes for covering with the negative emotions torment can breed and for advancing personal safety. Another function drama might affect moving like an Ethiopian pupil who has enrolled in a northern college without cognizing that winter vesture, like a coat, is needed. This exercising advances the nonsubjective by assisting the pupils function play a state of affairs in which they take on the character of an international pupil confronting a realistic job. As portion of the preparation plan, I would state the occupant helpers that tiffin will be provided to them. The intent of the tiffin, nevertheless, is to offer them another kinaesthetic acquisition chance. Another manner in which to advance improved acquisition by kinaesthetic scholars is to prosecute them in hands-on activities or, in this instance, a oral cavity and stomach-centered activity ( Armstrong, 2009 ) . Our tiffin would be set up like the cafeteria at an American university. The nutrient would non be labeled, and they would stand for assorted nutrients that are eaten around the universe that might be unusual to American pupils. For illustration, there might be nutrients such as curried caprine animal, lingua greaser, stewed okra, natto ( fermented soya beans ) , blood pudding, kifte ( extremely spiced natural beef ) , kim qi ( spicy fermented veggies ) , and bread fruit and drinks like horchata and ginger beer. Sing such a counter might be disorientating to scholars who are steeped in American civilization and who are used to school bill of fares of pizza and beefburgers. This exercising provides pupils with a concrete, hands-on acquisition experience, that of being forced to choose and eat nutrients that are unusual without any anterior experience or counsel ( McKenzie, 1999 ) . It promotes the nonsubjective by leting the occupant hall helper to see what an international pupil might see the first twenty-four hours in the cafeteria. You have taken the Emotional Intelligence Test online. a ) Argue for or against the usage of emotional intelligence trials in engaging. You need to mention at least TWO ( 2 ) beginnings outside class stuffs to back up your reply. ( 2 points ) I find the thought of emotional intelligence to be extremely attractive. â€Å" Emotional intelligence is a set of abilities that includes the abilities to perceive emotions in the ego and in others, usage emotions to ease public presentation, understand emotions and emotional cognition, and modulate emotions in the ego and in others † ( Mayer & A ; Salovey, 1997 ) . Even though the construct of emotional intelligence presently is supported as a â€Å" separate concept of intelligence † by small empirical grounds ( Merriam, Caffarella, & A ; Baumgartner, 2007, p. 383 ) , I find that this theoretical account speaks to me because it argues for the importance of a really of import portion of life that is frequently denigrated or denied. How we interact and perceive the universe is non merely cold and rational, but instead our emotions play an of import portion in how we perceive the universe and how we learn and make significance. Dirkx ( 2008 ) argues that â€Å" emotional issues ne'er seem really far from the surface in grownup acquisition contexts † ( p. 9 ) . Emotions can impact how the pupil reacts to a schoolroom puting. They can besides impact, positively or negatively, how good an single learns, particularly if a scholar is scared or fearful ( Rager, 2009 ) . In add-on, struggles between scholars can make negative emotions that negatively impact the ability to larn ( Dirkx, 2008 ) . Having emotional intelligence can break aid scholars understand non merely their ain acquisition procedure but besides can assist them understand what their fellow scholars are traveling through. The usage of emotional intelligence trials in hiring, nevertheless, is a different affair. Does emotional intelligence play an of import function in an person ‘s ability to be a good employee? Is it perchance to accurately prove an person ‘s emotional intelligence? The usage of emotional intelligence trials in hiring is turning, yet the cogency of the trials is problematic ( Grubb & A ; McDaniel, 2007 ) . There is no uncertainty that emotional intelligence can be helpful in the workplace. Cote and Miners ( 2006 ) found that workers who had low cognitive abilities could be extremely successful workers if they had strong emotional intelligence to counterbalance for their lacks in other countries. However, the ability to accurately prove for emotional intelligence and to happen a trial that could non be â€Å" faked out † continues to be hard. Grubb and McDaniel ( 2007 ) found that, at least with one peculiar emotional intelligence trial, the EQ-i: Second, it was possible to learn trial takers how to â€Å" forge † emotional intelligence. In their experiment, they found that imposters could be identified in merely 31 % of the instances, but â€Å" most of the respondents were able to increase their mark by forging and non be identif ied † ( Grubb & A ; McDaniel, 2007, p. 56 ) . Of what usage is a trial that can be so easy deceived? On the other manus, other research workers have found emotional intelligence trials to be really utile in engaging patterns. In one survey, the research workers found that emotional intelligence trials were advantageous to minority trial takers, as they tended to hit higher in emotional intelligence than Caucasians ( Van Rooy, Alexander, & A ; Chockalingam, 2005 ) . If engaging were based on emotional intelligence trials with the engaging single unaware of the race of the trial taker, minority appliers might be more likely to be hired, whereas in traditional hiring state of affairss they are more likely to non be hired due to racism. When I took the emotional intelligence trial online, I was extremely dismayed by the consequences, which indicated that I had below mean emotional intelligence. I found this distressing because I have spent most of my calling working in places that require a high grade of emotional intelligence ( ability to read people, empathy ) and I have been really successful in my work. Have I been forging emotional intelligence this full clip or did I merely non make good in the proving environment? Or was the trial itself faulty? In the terminal, I believe that the construct of emotional intelligence is of import to see in the workplace. In many places, holding emotional intelligence is cardinal to or supports success. However, emotional intelligence trials remain debatable and should be used merely with great cautiousness. Ultimately, whether or non person has the emotional intelligence needed for any given place will merely be determined by detecting that single ‘s public presentation on the occupation. As the testing instruments are developed and refined, possibly this fact will alter, but for now, to establish a determination on whether or non to engage a given person on the footing of an emotional intelligence trial is non in the best involvements of employer or employee. 5. Situated knowledge is a subject of involvement in big instruction and it has been used in many scenes. Following are inquiries refering located knowledge. Compare ( state the similarities between ) and contrast ( state the differences between ) situated knowledge and experiential acquisition. ( 1 point ) In the narrative â€Å" Talking to the Dead † by Watanabe, explicate what type ( s ) of larning occur for supporter ( e.g. experiential, located knowledge, brooding pattern ) and support your reply by binding it to grounds in your readings. ( 1 point ) Situated knowledge and experiential acquisition are closely related. However, the primary topographic point of societal interaction and societal relationships as a demand of larning in societal knowledge delineates the two theories from each other. It is the importance of the societal interactions in Watanabe ‘s ( 2000 ) narrative, Talking to the Dead, that indicate that the type of larning the supporter experienced falls under the class of located knowledge.Situated Cognition and Experiential LearningOne of the most outstanding theories of grownup instruction, experiential acquisition addresses how grownups make significance or learn from their experiences ( Zepke & A ; Leach, 2002 ) . There are five major schools of idea that autumn under experiential acquisition theory. The first is the constructivist theoretical account, in which scholars participate in a brooding procedure in order to develop new apprehensions ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . The situative theoretical account p ostulates that larning happens as the scholar participates in activities, such as larning on the occupation ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . The psychoanalytic theoretical account believes that the emotions of the scholar, peculiarly those that inhibit acquisition, must be dealt with in order for larning to happen, and the critical theoretical account believes that larning happens when the scholar challenges the bulk civilization ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . Finally, the complexness theoretical account posits that larning happens when persons compare and contrast what multiple experiences teach them ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . Like experiential acquisition, situated knowledge involves a scholar deriving new understanding from lived experience. One illustration of located knowledge, the cognitive apprenticeship, makes this clear. In this procedure, larning can ne'er be separated â€Å" from the state of affairs in which the acquisition is presented † ( Merriam et al. , 2007, p. 178 ) . The acquisition happens in the experience. The experience of the topographic point itself is of import to the procedure of acquisition. â€Å" The physical and societal experiences and state of affairss in which scholars find themselves and the tools they use in that experience are built-in to the full acquisition procedure † ( Merriam et al. , 2007, p. 178 ) . Experiential acquisition besides focuses on â€Å" making the undertaking in order to larn it † ( Hansman, 2001, p. 46 ) . Situated knowledge, nevertheless, â€Å" is inherently societal in nature. The nature of the interactions among scholars, the tools they use within these interactions, the activity itself, and the societal context in which the activity takes topographic point form acquisition † ( Hansman, p. 45 ) . Experiential larning theory might affect a societal constituent but does non needfully necessitate it.Learning to Talk to the DeadIn seeking to find what type of larning the supporter of Watanabe ‘s ( 2000 ) narrative Talking to the Dead experienced, I felt it of import to believe about what it was that she was truly larning. On the surface, it appears that she was larning the procedure of fixing the organic structures of the dead. However, at a deeper degree, the supporter is really larning about proper societal relationships – between maestro and learner, between female parents and kids, between co-workers, and between the life and the dead ( Watanabe, 2000 ) . With t his in head, I believe that the supporter participated in located knowledge. Neither her acquisition procedure nor what she learned can be separated for the societal experience ( Hansman, 2001 ) . As in a cognitive apprenticeship, her larning merely came approximately because she learned in a specific state of affairs ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . Had she learned to embalm organic structures in another topographic point, she ne'er would hold learned that the proper manner to care for Aunty Talking to the Dead was to cremate her cadaver in the traditional manner ( Watanabe, 2000 ) . Every experience she had in larning about the proper relationships between the life and the dead – from the puting out of Mustard to the Blindman and the Blindman ‘s Dog – every societal context in which she found herself and of all time interaction between herself, Aunty, and others in the community contributed to her larning what she needed to larn in order to come to her minute ( Wata nabe, 2000, p. 279 ) . Application of Gerald Grow ‘s SDL Scale to Instruction: Grow ‘s SDL graduated table is enlightening for all pedagogues. This inquiry asks you to use his graduated table. You are an teacher in whatever context you choose. a ) Create a class rubric and one ( 1 ) aim. ( 1 point ) B ) Describe in item how you would learn this aim ( use 2 concrete illustrations ) to a Level 1 and a Level 4 scholar. ( 2 points ) I have for two old ages taught a class titled â€Å" Female Images of the Divine in the West. † My pupils dearly call it the goddess category. The primary aim of the class is to develop the ability to believe critically about how spiritual symbols and imagery impact people ‘s lives – both in the past and in the present. It is a 200-level undergraduate category, and I frequently find that I have a big group of freshman pupils in my category. I besides tend to hold a important figure of non-traditional-age pupils in my category, largely because it is a dark category. It makes for a really interesting group of pupils, stand foring every phase of Grow ‘s ( 1991 ) SDL Scale to Instruction.Teaching Phase 1 LearnersPhase 1 scholars are really dependent and view the teacher as the ultimate authorization on the capable affair ( Grow, 1991 ) . They feel most comfy in environments in which they receive immediate feedback, and they feel most comfy in an environment in w hich the teacher-master dispenses wisdom to the scholar ( Grow, 1991 ) . In working with this type of pupil, the pedagogue needs to happen a manner to assist the pupil addition assurance and get down to derive command over stuff that might be wholly new to them ( Grow, 1991 ( . The first manner I teach to my aim for my Phase 1 scholars is to assist them acknowledge that they know more about images of goddesses than they might believe they do – even if they do non place with any peculiar religion. We do this by speaking about popular civilization word pictures of goddesses. I have discovered that my pupils all seem to adore Xena: Warrior Princess. I have them travel on YouTube and happen cartridge holders from the show that depict the assorted goddesses – Here, Callisto, and Aphrodite to call merely a few. We so read primary texts from the ancient Greeks depicting the goddesses. As a group, we identify similarities and differences between the telecasting word pictures and the word pictures of the ancient Greeks and discourse why the two are frequently different. This treatment frequently leads to a farther treatment about why the goddesses were of import to ancient peoples and starts a semester-long treatment about the topographic point of godd ess imagination in modern times. A 2nd manner I help my Phase 1 pupils is that I give quizzes in category, particularly during the first few hebdomads, and we go over the replies right off. This helps them acquire immediate feedback on their apprehension of the stuff. This activity helps progress the class aim because spiritual symbolism both holds steady and evolves over clip. If they do non derive a solid command of the ancient apprehensions of goddesses, they have great trouble when we begin treatment on whether or non modern figures, such as Princess Diana or Angelina Jolie, serve the same intents in modern society as Artemis or Isis did in antediluvian civilizations.Teaching Phase 4 LearnersPhase 4 scholars are considered to be to the full autonomous ( Grow, 1991 ) . For a autonomous scholar, the pedagogue is person who serves as a adviser, heightening the acquisition work that is delineated and directed by the scholar. Students working at the really highest degrees are frequently autonomous scholars ; surely, a pupil set abouting a major undertaking such as a thesis ought to be able to work as a autonomous scholar ( Grow, 1991 ) . As an teacher of a phase 4 scholar, I personally feel most comfy with the delegator function ( Grow, 1991 ) . In this function, I can work straight with the pupil to detect their involvements and demands, assist them develop a acquisition program, and so run into with them on a regular footing to discourse their advancement and any barriers they have encountered. As portion of their acquisition program, we besides develop together an appraisal program: what will be assessed, what merchandises they are required to bring forth, and by which standard we will measure their advancement ( Zepke & A ; Leach, 2002 ) . Most frequently, the phase 4 pupils I work with and I agree that they will prosecute an independent undertaking that makes a connexion between the antediluvian and the modern. One undertaking involved a pupil who examined the ancient Irish myths of the godly figure Deirdre. She so created an interpretative dance that incorporated environmental, costume, and motion symbols to co nvey the myth to a modern audience. Another pupil undertook a undertaking that looked at the construct of ancient sovereignty goddesses and so used that stuff to analyse the Robert Zemeckis ‘ movie version of Beowulf. When we foremost discussed the undertaking, I suspected she might happen reverberations of sovereignty goddesses in the figure of Grendel ‘s female parent, but she besides, convincingly, found reverberations of the construct in the figure of Wealtheow. I was blown off! My pupil had made an rational find that had wholly escape me. 7. Several writers have constructed theoretical accounts that show autonomous acquisition as a procedure. Construct your ain theoretical account of autonomous acquisition based on your experiences. ( 1 point ) Compare ( state the similarities between ) and contrast ( state the differences between your theoretical account and two of the theoretical accounts found in Merriam, Caffarella and Baumgartner ( 2007 ) ( pp. 110-119 ) . ( 2 points ) Argue for or against the importance of context in the autonomous acquisition procedure utilizing grounds from the literature. ( 1 points ) Specifying autonomous acquisition can be slippery. It is non a self-contained theory of grownup larning but alternatively a group of related constructs and patterns. Among the definitions I most prefer, Caffarella ( 1993 ) defines autonomous acquisition as: a self-initiated procedure of larning that stresses the ability of persons to program and pull off their ain acquisition, an property or feature of scholars with personal liberty as its trademark, and a manner of forming direction in formal scenes that allows for greater scholar control. ( p. 25 ) . Similar to Caffarella ‘s ( 1993 ) definition, Candy ‘s ( 1987 ) definition focuses on the importance of liberty in autonomous acquisition, although the scholar can work in concert with an pedagogue ( as cited in Grow, 1991 ) .My Model of Autonomous LearningMy ain theoretical account of autonomous acquisition is one based on procedure divinity. Process divinity is grounded in alteration, growing, and changeless motion. â€Å" Human and other existences are non things ( substances or kernels ) situated in empty infinite aˆÂ ¦ but are active procedures of all time in relation and passage † ( Christ, 2003, p. 3 ) . Furthermore, as a postmodern divinity, it is structured around the belief that all cognition is contextual and that cognition is shaped and controlled by cultural systems. The ego can ne'er be genuinely independent. â€Å" The individuality of each of us extends over and includes the civilization, society, and civilisation that we participate in. There is no stray, lone ego imprisoned in its ain organic structure † ( Brumbaugh, 1982, p. 3 ) . My theoretical account of autonomous acquisition is one, so, that is based on the thought that worlds, by nature, are spurred to turn and alter. Curiosity is portion of growing and alteration, whether initiated by internal demands and involvements or external demands and forces. Once wonder is sparked, the scholar sees where that wonder takes her or him – either in weaving jets of larning activity or in a sustained acquisition journey. As portion of their autonomous acquisition, the scholar may seek out educational stuffs. The scholar may besides integrate hands-on activities, seting into pattern what has been taken in from the educational stuffs, or take a category to foster reinforce what has been learned from other beginnings. At times, failure may ensue, and the scholar may get down the full procedure once more. If there is success, the scholar may rest for a clip, but be spurred once more subsequently to set about a new acquisition undertaking.Similarities and Differences Between ModelsIn many ways, my theoretical account of autonomous acquisition is non much different from many of the synergistic theoretical accounts described in Merriam et Al. ( 2007 ) . Like those theoretical accounts, my theoretical account is non additive in nature. Curiosity and the acquisition journey will take the scholar where the scholar wants or needs to travel. My theoretical account has the most in common with Spear ‘s theoretical account. First, Spear identifies three elements that spur autonomous acquisition, all of which work with my theoretical account: environmental chance, opportunity, and personal cognition ( as cited in Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . Second, Spear ‘s theoretical account incorporates the thought that autonomous acquisition is non a steady, controlled procedure, but instead one that can go on in tantrums and starts, one that can halt and get down once more, and one that can integrate room for both failure and success ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . My theoretical account is least like those proposed by Tough and Knowles. In Tough ‘s theoretical account, autonomous acquisition is calculated and focused on achieving a specific piece of cognition or a accomplishment ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . In Knowles ‘ theoretical account, autonomous acquisition is a bit-by-bit procedure focused on work outing a particular job ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . My larning theoretical account acknowledges that certain scholars may elect to set about a additive autonomous acquisition procedure focused on work outing a peculiar job, but it does non presume that all autonomous acquisition will follow a similar way. My theoretical account has room for larning for the interest of acquisition and for fulfilling wonder, for the joy of merely being able to state â€Å" Well, you learn something new every twenty-four hours. †Importance of ContextIn all of the theoretical accounts I have examined here, including my ain, context plays a critic al function. First, a scholar ‘s context may find whether or non she or he is interested in or capable of take parting in a autonomous acquisition procedure ( Grow, 1991 ; Zepke & A ; Leach, 2002 ) . Second, context can find the type of resources available to assist with acquisition. For illustration, interior metropolis scholars of colour may non hold entree to all the rich acquisition resources that can be obtained through the Internet. Not merely is the monetary value of a computing machine prohibitive, but the scholar, as the consequence of life in a context, an environment, that is unsupportive, may non hold the computing machine literacy needed to utilize the Internet to seek out information as portion of his or her autonomous acquisition procedure ( Norris & A ; Conceicao, 2004 ) . All in all, context should be a core constituent of autonomous acquisition. 8. Experiential acquisition, autonomous acquisition, and transformative acquisition are three theories of grownup acquisition. What is the â€Å" best † larning theory? Why? Supply grounds from your readings ( and beyond if you so choose ) to back up your points. ( 3 points ) This essay will briefly analyze the chief renters of experiential acquisition, autonomous acquisition, and transformative acquisition. While all three theories have both positive and negative facets, I argue that experiential acquisition is the most flexible and hence the most utile of the three theories for the work of big pedagogues.The Three TheoriesExperiential larning â€Å" is a procedure of doing intending from all experiences-cognitive, emotional, physical, societal and religious † ( Zepke & A ; Leach, 2002, p. 206 ) . Harmonizing to Zepke and Leach ( 2002 ) , experiential acquisition is possibly the most dominant construct in the grownup instruction field, but theoreticians have different thoughts of how the procedure works. Learners can either reflect on experience in order to larn ( constructivist lens ) , learn through take parting in experiences ( situative lens ) , learn by linking with and get the better ofing frights and other emotional barriers ( psychoanalyti c lens ) , learn by challenge the dominate ethos ( critical lens ) , or larn by developing an apprehension of how assorted experiences relate to each other ( complexness lens ) ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . Harmonizing to Grow ( 1991 ) , the â€Å" end of the educational procedure is to bring forth autonomous, womb-to-tomb scholars † ( p. 127 ) . Although autonomous acquisition can be hard to specify, Candy ( 1987 ) delineated three features that can be used to set up whether or non learning is autonomous: the scholar possesses autonomy, the acquisition can go on outside of a formal acquisition environment, and the acquisition is directed chiefly by the pupil even if a instructor is involved ( as cited in Grow, 1991 ) . Mezirow ‘s theory of transformational larning postulates that adults see a minute when their beliefs turn out inadequate in understanding the state of affairs in which they find themselves ( Elias & A ; Merriam, 2005 ) . This disorienting quandary forces them to reevaluate their cognition and develop new apprehensions. As a consequence, a transmutation happens, and the single learns and grows ( Elias & A ; Merriam, 2005 ) . Transformative acquisition is an emancipatory procedure in which self-reflection leads to critical consciousness ( Cranton, 2002 ) .The â€Å" Best † TheoryAll of these larning theories have countries of concern. For illustration, scholars may non really have the ability to larn from experience, or they may non hold had experiences that are meaningful ( Brookfield, 1998 ) . On the other manus, scholars may non hold the desire or the ability to direct their ain acquisition procedures ( Zepke & A ; Leach, 2002 ) . Transformative acquisition can be ethic ally disputing. First of wholly, the terminal consequence of transformative acquisition could be a major crisis for the scholar. â€Å" Despite an pedagogue ‘s best purposes, a procedure of transformative acquisition can take to unpredictable and unwilled events † ( Moore, 2005, p. 83 ) . The power derived function between scholar and pedagogue can take to indoctrination ( Moore, 2005 ) . Ultimately, the best acquisition theory is whichever theory best helps the scholar run into his or her educational ends. However, transmutation of the scholar is non a demand of either autonomous or experiential acquisition ; hence, they both may advance greater flexibleness in grownup instruction ( Zepke & A ; Leach, 2002 ) . Autonomous acquisition is less an grownup larning theory and more a related group of patterns and thoughts ( Caffarella, 1993 ) ; as a consequence, it is slightly mussy. It besides does non see as many issues as experiential larning theory does. Experiential acquisition, on the other manus, addresses the procedure of larning non merely from reflecting on and in experience but besides from larning through engagement in experiences ( Zepke & A ; Leach, 2002 ) . It besides addresses of import issues around emotions, cultural context and the scholar ‘s relationship to society, and doing sense of a broad assortment of experiences that may either reinforce or dispute each other ( Merriam et al. , 2007 ) . All in all, experiential acquisition addresses more issues that might impact a scholar ‘s larning experience than the other two theories, and hence, it is the most utile of the theories for grownup pedagogues.

Convergence In The Economies Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1209 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Cause and effect essay Did you like this example? Over the past half decade, although there have been a convergence in the economies and business practices, the difference of ownership structures amount countries have continued. Most companies shares the same goals which includes the utilization of resources efficiently, its ability to garner new capital, increase the companys value and improve information for decision making. These goals should see many companies and organizations moving towards a single corporate set of rules and structures that will allow efficient and effective operations. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Convergence In The Economies Finance Essay" essay for you Create order However, today we continue to observe differences in corporate governance ownership and structure around the globe. There are two common systems under which most companies operate namely a concentrated ownership system and a dispersed ownership system. A concentrated ownership system, the majority of control is taken up by a small group of individuals, shareholders or bondholders. In dispersed ownership, there is a separation of ownership and control where the executives and directors do not necessarily own any shares or any huge blocks of shares within the company. Under the dispersed system, the markets tend to be very active especially the stock market and large volume of stocks traded daily. Typical example of this type of system is one under which United States of America and United Kingdom operates. Unlike the dispersed system, the concentrated system is weaker and less active than those in the dispersed market. There are also very low standard and accountability in this type o f system unlike the dispersed ownership which is more regulated and provide a legal basis on which shareholders can be compensated for breaches and unethical practices. There is a high level of transparency and disclosure requirements for companies especially those listed on the stock exchange compared to the concentrated with very low disclosure standards and transparency . The emergence of the alternative corporate governance system has led to a number of theorists seeking to justify the existence of such systems. La Porta, Lopez-de Silanes and Schleifer have raised and argued the point in regards to the protection of investors and have indicated that this protection is through the legal rules that exist in the jurisdictions where these securities are being issued. The existing law in a jurisdiction and the enforcement quality are very important factors in determining the rights of shareholders and what protection exists for their investments. These legal protection differences that exist around the world may be able to explain why firms owned and finance the way they do across the globe. LLS V argued that a contributing factor of the differences in the legal rules that exist across various countries is mainly as a result of the differences in the origins of the legal rules. In their empirical test of their predictions, they have found that laws in co untries like the US, UK and Canada were more protective than those that exist in the Jurisdictions of civil law , namely, Germany, France and Italy. LLSV argued that little or no protection is offered to the minority shareholders in the civil law legal system; hence the notion that dispersed ownership can only survive in a common law legal system. In supporting this view, they developed a global database have indicated that the stock markets liquidity and depth around the world is closely align to specific areas of the legal systems, common law systems Civil- law systems consistently. A typically example of the legal protection to shareholders in the common law jurisdiction is the scenario of the Enron Scandal in ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ This scenario raises serious questions about the assumptions of LLSV and the legal protection that exist in these jurisdictions. However, the adoption of the Sarbanes-Oxley act of 2002 was a quick response and proof of good legal protection for investors in this jurisdiction. LLSV also found in their sample that even in countries with minimal shareholder protection, there were 27% of the large firms in the sample. It therefore explains that even where firms with dispersed ownership are minority in many countries, these firms exist in all markets regardless of the legal rules. The reality of the situation is that in most security markets, a number of firms with dispersed ownership exist together with a number of concentrated owne rship usually the majority in some jurisdiction which attempts to discredit the explanation of dispersed ownership as a function strong legal protection. Dispersed ownership firms can basically survive in the worse legal atmosphere which would be an indicator that having a strong legal protection or not does not determine the survival of these firms. The legal Explanation of the emergence of the dispersed ownership has been challenged by Mark Roe and Lucian Bebchuk who argued that it is politics that is the determinant of the corporate governance system and not law. According to Mark Roe, legal differences are merely values evolved through politics. They argued that European style social democracies influence managers to give up various opportunities so as to maximize the profit of the firm in order to maintain its high employment rate while utilizing the shareholders capital. They also argued that while in other political environment, firms may be expected to cut back on expenses based on the market conditions that exist, social democracies firms are expected and influenced to utilize their capital to subsidize the effects of the market. Private firms are therefore less exposed to the market conditions compared to the public firms. Roe attributed this exposure to a higher agency cost of the social democracies; hence concentrated ownership utilize a self -protective model in response to the immense pressures through creative accounting and tighter management supervision. Based on the arguments provided, it can be argued that large block of shareholders can resist the political pressure of exhausting capital of the firm rather than downsizing to maximize profitability. As it relates to the United States, the historical absence of social democracy accounts for the persistence of dispersed ownership in that country. The effect of social democracy is to separate ownership and control as it relates to shareholders and management, thereby increasing the agency cost. While both theorist agreed that the emergence of a liquid market requires the state to adequately address the problem of the high agency cost, it is important to understand that control and ownership cannot be considered separately without looking at the impact of the managerial agency cost, the impact of weak legal standards compared to the political pressures of firms to utilize their capital. Bebchuk in his political explanation sought to use the argument that concentrated ownership will control dispersed ownership when there are high benefits to private control. He also argued that investors are expected to pay a higher price for controlling rights of block holdings in order to have the private benefits of control. It therefore means investor will prefer to sell to block shareholders where they will get a higher price for their voting rights against selling their rights to disperse shareholders. In essence, a bock shareholder will be more willing to pay a higher price in order to increase his rights of control or achieve sole rights of control. In the ensued discussion, it must be noted that the political explanation is not without its weaknesses similar to the legal explanation. A weakness identified is its correlation of ownership and political orientation