Capital Punishment :: essays research papers fc

Capital Punishment Introduction: Think for a moment about the fall into sin. Think about the people in Noah’s day. Sodom and Gomorrah. What is the punishment inflicted upon all of them by God? Death. The death penalty, or capital punishment, is the first and harshest penalty for sin. Although it has evolved and changed form over the years, and is now decided upon by men playing God, it is still an acceptable, God pleasing form of punishment. I am going to tell you what capital punishment is, its history, its current role in the justice of criminals, and why I believe that it pleases God. Body: Capital punishment, simply put, is killing someone for a crime that they have committed. This crime is murder. In some countries and states, it is considered acceptable to kill the person who has taken the life of another. The methods of execution have varied since the beginning of time, but three current popular ways include the gas chamber, lethal injection, and the electric chair. My overhead shows the different ways that states used for execution in 1994. In addition to the three most popular choices, a hanging and a firing squad are also used in a few states. According to the book â€Å"Should We Have Capital Punishment† by JoAnn Bren Guernsey, these choices were made with the goal of a more humane murder in mind. The gas chamber is a small, sealed room in which the prisoner sits strapped to a chair. A lethal gas is sent through the floor of the room, and death usually takes about five minutes. Lethal injections simply involve the insertion of a needle filled with poison into a vein and injected. This procedure can be effective, but also takes long amounts of time quite often. The electric chair was invented as a way to quickly and painlessly kill the prisoner, but has proven to not be as effective as thought. It has taken up to three 2000 volt shocks to kill someone, with fire, sparks, and smoke reported to be seen coming from their head. None the less , the electric chair is currently the most popular method of execution. The history of capital punishment goes back to the beginning of time. The punishment for the fall into sin was death. God first punished Adam and Eve by banishing them from the Garden of Eden, and forcing them to endure pain and conflict as a reminder of their sin.

Geronimo :: essays papers

Geronimo I was born in No-doyohn Canon, Arizona, June, 1829. In that country which lies around the head waters of the Gila River I was reared. This range was our fatherland; among these mountains our wigwams were hidden; the scattered valleys contained our fields; the boundless prairies, stretching away on every side, were our pastures; the rocky caverns were our burying places. I was fourth in a family of eight children-- four boys and four girls. Of that family, only myself, my brother, Porico, and my sister, Nah-da-ste , are yet alive. We are held as prisoners of war in this Military Reservation (Fort Sill). As a babe I rolled on the dirt floor of my father's tepee, hung in my tsoch (Apache name for cradle) at my mother's back, or suspended from the bough of a tree. I was warmed by the sun, rocked by the winds, and sheltered by the trees as other Indian babes. When a child my mother taught me the legends of our people; taught me of the sun and sky, the moon and stars, the clouds and storms. She also taught me to kneel and pray to Usen for strength, health, wisdom, and protection. We never prayed against any person, but if we had faught against any individual we ourselves took vengeance. We were taught that Usen does not care for the petty quarrels of men. My father had often told me of the brave deeds of our warriors, of the pleasures of the chase, and the glories of the war path. With my brothers and sisters I played about my father's home. Sometimes we played at hide-and-seek among the rocks and pines; sometimes we loitered in the shade of the cottonwood trees or sought the shudock (a kind of wild cherry) while our parents worked in the field. Sometimes we played that we were warriors. We would practice stealing upon some object that represented an enemy, and in our childish imitation often perform the feats of war. Sometimes we would hide away from our mother to see if she could find us, and often when thus concealed go to sleep and perhaps remain hidden for many hours. When we were old enough to be of real service we went to the field with our parents: not to play, but to toil. When the crops were to be planted we broke the ground with wooden hoes. We planted the corn in straight rows, the beans among the corn, and the melons and pumpkins in irregular order over the field. We cultivated these crops

The Purpose of Education Essay -- Education Schooling

What is the purpose of education? What do we seek from it? How does it better our lives? What is the role of public schools? These are all important questions, but first I am going to give a brief summary of the text by Timothy McMannon entitled The Public Purpose of Education and Schooling. McMannon gives the reader plenty of reasons for why we need education and how it helps us and our society; he starts by explaining that in past cultures schooling was not done in a formal school but in â€Å"the community, the family, and the church† (McMannon 1). Some cultures even believed that education was something that took a lifetime. The essay then progresses into explaining how education has evolved through the centuries into what it is today and why it has become what it is. Everyone has his or her own take on what they believe education is and should be. Your parents could think of it as a day care facility until you get to high school and then they might think of it as a place to earn a degree and soon move out. Your grandparents might think of it as a place where you go to learn things that you aren’t going to need in life because they never did. Political leaders may think of it as an economical advantage over another country. The list goes on, but as a student, I believe that there are many purposes of education; it is more than one thing, but many things that combine into what education really is. One role of public schools is to promote the principles and standards of our society, which have been all but forgotten. Today we presume that school is a place where we go to learn history and mathematics, but it is much more than that. Schooling teaches us what our leaders are too busy to explain. By this, I mean that our teachers... ...u never acquired anything from becoming educated, why would you continue with it? In part, â€Å"education must be practical† (McMannon 8) and we need to recognize that. Works Cited Fulghum, Robert. All I Really Needed to Know I Learned in Kindergarten. New York: Ballantine Books, 1986. Hudson, William E. and Robert H. Trudeau. "Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning." An Essay on the Institionalization of Service-Learning: The Genesis of the Feinstein Institute for Public Service 2.1 (1995): 150-158. McMannon, Timothy. "The Changing Purposes of Education and Schooling." McMannon, Timothy and John Goodlad. The Public Purpose of Education and Schooling. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1997. Nussbaum, Martha. "Cultivating Imaginations: Literature and the Arts." Not For Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010.

Analysis of ‘Frankenstein’ by Mary Shelley Essay

Using close analysis of ‘Frankenstein’ by Mary Shelley and ‘Dracula’ by Bram Stoker, explain, using evidence, how both contain the characteristics of the gothic horror genre. I have been asked to write an essay comparing the two gothic horror novels, ‘Frankenstein’ and ‘Dracula’, explaining the characteristics of gothic horror. Frankenstein was written in 1818 by Mary Shelley. Shelley was born in August of 1797; during this time was a high interest of gothic horror genre. Shelley was inspired to write Frankenstein by the emotions she felt loosing her children. Shelley’s hopes of re-animating a corpse are transferred through the character or victor. The fact the novel is of the gothic horror genre was possibly the influence of the period it was written. The plot deals with the conflict within Frankenstein. Due to his love of the sciences he resurrects parts of dead corpses to form one monster like creature. Victor’s dreams to create a new life are demolished when Victor rejects the disgusting sight along with all people. The monster misunderstood and alone decides to take revenge by killing the people most close to Victor. Victor realises it is only him who can and must destroy what he created. But whilst he attempts this he is requested by the monster to create him another monster like companion. Caught between two moral responsibilities, his responsibility for his own creation and that towards the human race, Victor decides not to give life to a second creature. As a result the monster does what is most feared by Frankenstein and kills Frankenstein true love, Elizabeth. The monster, with no meaning of life, kills himself horrifically. Frankenstein’s main moral is don’t judge on appearance. Bram Stoker was born in 1847 and wrote Dracula in 1987. His vampire tale was supposedly the result of indigestion from a very spicy curry that resulted in a restless night of nightmares. ‘Dracula’ is the story of a vampire, Count Dracula, who lives in Transylvania. Jonathan Harker, a Lawyer travels to Dracula’s castle. It is there Jonathan discovers Dracula to be a vampire. He somehow manages to escape in an immense state of fear and shock. As a result to other vampiristic behaviour to Jonathan and others a group is formed consisting of Doctor Sword, Van Helsing, Jonathan and Mina who begin a pursuit for Dracula. They reach Transylvania and successfully destroy Dracula. The main moral to the story of Dracula is, no matter how powerful either side, in the battle of good versus evil good always triumphs over evil.

Balsara Used to Its Advantage

Explain the environmental factors which Balsara used to its advantage. BALSARA USED TO ITS ADVANTAGE IN INDIA. – with clove oil (which has been traditionally regarded in India as an effective deterrent to tooth decay and tooth ache) as a unique selling proposition IN MALAYSIA – There was good response to Miswak also in the Muslim dominated Malaysia. Its promotion highlighted the fact that miswak (Latin Name : Salvadora Persica) was a plant that had been used for centuries by as a tooth cleaning twig. It had reference in Koran. Quoting from Faizal-E-Miswak, it was pointed out that prophet Mohammed used â€Å"miswak before sleeping at night and after awakening. ’’ The religious appeal in the promotion was reinforced by the findings of scientists all over the world, including Arabic ones, of the antibacterial property of clove and its ability to prevent tooth decay and gums. IN USA – Market intelligence revealed that there was a growing preference in the advanced counties for nature based products. Balsara tied up with Auromere Imports Inc. (AAII), Los Angeles. An agency established by American followers of Aurobindo, an Indian philosopher saint. Eight months of intensive R & D enabled Balsara to develop a tooth paste containing 24 herbal ingredients that would satisfy the required parameter. Auromere was voted as the No. 1 toothpaste in North Eastern USA ————— The product line was extended by introducing several variants of Auromere. A saccharine free toothpaste was introduced. It was found that mint and menthol were taboo for users of homoeopathic medicines. So a product free of such mints was developed. Auromere Fresh Mint for the young and Auromere Cina Mint containing a combination of cinnamon and peppermint were also introduced BALSARA EXPLOITED THESE SENTIMENTS. In the case of Balsara: there was increased demand for products which were herbal, organic etc from the customers. The marketing mix was designed to take advantage of the same whereby it included natural and herbal products and private label brands to customers who were willing to pay for the same.

Different Classes of Shares and the Benefits and the Disadvantages of Each Type of Shares.

Introduction First, we will mention about the purpose of this assignment, which is the benefit that we can gain from doing this project. From this project, it helps us to know the types of shares available in a company, definition of shares and the advantages and disadvantages of shares. From the information, this will enable a person who have interest invest in a company, purchase the shares that are suitable for them, based on the comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of each type of shares. Other than that, we can know the rights that attached to the shares. On the other hand, we will mention that under what relevant case law or relevant sections, the rights of the shareholders will be changed or affected. These circumstances are significant important to those shareholders who want their interest to be protected. For an example, when a company is going to winding up and under the normal situation, preference shareholders will have no right to participate in the surplus assets and profits but under when Section 66 Companies Act 1965, he has the right on it. Lastly, this project will give a fundamental or basic knowledge of each type of shares, the rights as being shareholders, which is useful in future, if we wish to success in our business field. Definition of shares According to Borlands Trustee v Steel Bros Co Ltd (1901), defines shares as the interest of a shareholder in the company measured by a sum of money, for purpose of a liability in the first place and of interest in the second but also consisting of a series of mutual covenants entered into by all the shareholders inter se. According to Section 4 Companies Act 1965 (hereinafter referred as CA’65) defines share as share in share capital of a corporation and includes stock except where a distinction between stock and shares is expressed or implied. In short, shares means that is the capital raised by a corporation, through the issuance and sale of shares. Section 98 CA’65 mentions the nature of share. The share or other interest of member in a company shall be moveable property, transferable in the manner provided by the articles, and shall not be of the nature of immovable property. It means that shares are movable properties, intangible in nature, chooses in action and transferable in nature unless the company is a private company. As according to Section 15 CA’65 private company has restriction of transferring share unless get the consent of all the members. There are various type of share in the market, such as ordinary share, preference share, deferred share, treasury share and others. However, the common one is ordinary share and preference share. Definition of Ordinary Share According to WorldReference. om Dictionary, ordinary share is share other than preferred share; entitles the owner to a share of the corporation's profits and a share of the voting power in shareholder elections. Definition of Preference Share Section 4 CA’65 defines preference share a share by whatever name called, which does not entitle the holder thereof to the right to vote at a general meeting or to any right to participate beyond a specific amount in any distributio n whether by way of dividend, or on redemption, in a winding up or otherwise. According to WorldReference. com Dictionary, preference share is share whose holders are guaranteed priority in the payment of dividends but whose holders have no voting rights. Benefits of Ordinary Share There are several advantages for subscribing the ordinary shares rather than preference shares. First, as an ordinary shareholder, he is a proprietor or owner of the company. A shareholder is entitled to membership rights of the company. It means that a shareholder as a member of the company has full voting rights at any general meeting. Through voting, a shareholder can participate in the management of the company. If the shareholder holds the majority rights (more than or equal to 51% of the rights) he can control the company financial and operating. Section 55 CA’65 says each member of a public company has one vote in respect of each ordinary share. Besides that, as a member of the company, he has the right to receive the notice of general meeting, to request the financial report, to attend and speak during the general meeting, to appoint the director during the general meeting. Moreover, he has the right to appoint proxies in the event that they cannot themselves attend the general meeting. As an ordinary shareholder, when the company is making a lot of profit, or in other word, in the event the company is prosperous, he stand to gain the most than preference shareholder as their dividend is higher compare to the fixed rate dividend received by preference shareholder. Furthermore, in the scenario of company winding up, an ordinary shareholder has the right to participate a share in any surplus assets of the company plus the repayment of his capital. Besides that, the Articles of Association require the company to offer any further shares it proposes to issue to the ordinary shareholders before offering them to outsiders, and usually the new shares are offered to the existing shareholders at a lower price than they would be offered to the outsiders. Disadvantages of Ordinary Share As a member of the company, ordinary shareholder is the main risk bearer of the company. It means that these shares carry a right to a dividend limited only by the size of the profit made by the company and are paid after the preference shareholders. They will be the last to receive the dividend. The dividend receive is in the form of non-cumulative dividend and the rate of dividend is not fixed, means when company did not declared dividends for this year, the dividends will not accumulated to next year and the amount is not secured. Under Section 365 CA’65, dividends are only payable out of the company’s profit. In the event that there are no profits, they will not receive any return of their investment. In fact, the company has no obligation to declare and pay dividend as the director can retain profits or capitalize the profits in the form of bonus share. However, when the company is making profit continuously for some years but director does not declare any dividend, the shareholders can apply to the court and sue the company under Section 33(1) CA’65 where Memorandum of Association and Article of Association constitute contractual effect between company and members, and where members right are affected, they can sue the company. In the scenario of winding up, ordinary shareholders will be the last to receive the repayment of capital. The next disadvantages of ordinary shares s that the issue of shares may result in diluting the shares held by the existing shareholders particularly directors who also are shareholders. It simply means the directors may lose control of the company unless they buy the new shares. Types of Preference Share There are several types of preference share: Cumulative preference share – If the dividends are cannot be paid in one year or the company does not pay the full dividend on preference shar es in any year the preference shareholder will be entitled to have the amount deficiency made up in later year before any dividend is paid on ordinary shares. Non-cumulative preference shares – the holder of such shares are only entitled to the specific rate of dividend out of the current year. If in a year the profits do not warrant payment of a dividend, the arrears are not carried forward to the subsequent year. Participating preference shares – the holders of such shares are entitled to a preferential dividend if the specified fixed rate before the ordinary shareholders. After the ordinary shareholder has received their dividends, the participating preference shareholder will participate further in any profit remaining together with the ordinary shareholders in the surplus assets. Moreover, they can also participate in surplus of assets with ordinary shareholders when the company is wound up. Redeemable preference shares – these shares may be redeemed by the company at a stated redemption price after a specified time. The redemption must be effected only on such terms and condition and in such manner provided by the Articles of Association. It means that the shares are not redeemable before the specific time and the company must buy back the shares at the price stated and at the specific time. Convertible preference shares – these shares carry the right to be made convertible, at the option of the holder, into another class of shares, normally into ordinary shares. General Advantages of Preference Shares Unless the Articles of Association or otherwise provided, generally, preference shares that are issued had the rights to a fixed dividend per share to be paid whenever there is sufficient profit, before any dividend is paid to any other member. The preference shareholders are more secured as ompare to ordinary shareholder as they have the priority to receive their return of investment than ordinary shareholder especially when the company is having ‘bad time’ where the profits is uncertain. Moreover, preference shares are presumed to carry a right to cumulative dividends where their dividends will become payable at the next year. Further more, preference shares are given the right to be repaid the nominal value of each share when the company is wound up before any capital is returned to other members. They are entitled to be repaid their capital of investment before the ordinary shareholders. General Disadvantages of Preference Shares Unless the Articles of Association or otherwise provided, generally, preference share does not entitle the holder to the rights to vote at a general meeting. Their voting rights to are often limited only during their dividends in respect of the share are in arrears, upon a proposal that affects rights attached to the share (variation of class rights), or upon a proposal to wind up the company. In short, they have limited right to vote, no right to attend general meeting, limited right to some of the company decision making. Thus, when a company is going to raise fund, they are willing to issue further preference share rather than ordinary share because of the limited voting rights. Even though directors issued more preference share to the stranger (public), they still maintained their majority voting and financial control of the company. Therefore, preference share are the best alternative for the directors of the company. The next disadvantage is they have no rights to participate beyond a specified amount in any distribution whether by way of dividend, or on redemption, in a winding up or otherwise. Different from the ordinary share, preference share is paid in a fixed dividend rate. They cannot participate in the surplus of profit or assets during the company are wound up. Thus, they have less return of investment especially during the company prosperous time. Rights of Holders of Preference Shares to be set out in the Memorandum of Association or Articles of Association Section 66(1) Companies Act 1965 mention no company shall allot any preference shares or convert any issued shares into preference share unless there is set out in its memorandum or articles the rights of the holders of those share with respect to: Repayment of capital – it should state that when the company is winding up, they would have the right to claim the nominal value of each share before any capital is returned to ordinary shareholder. Participation in surplus assets and profits – it should state that when the company is winding up and there is surplus of assets and profits, the preference shareholders entitled to have a share of it with the ordinary shareholders. Cumulative or non-cumulative dividends – it should state that the preference shareholders would receive either cumulative dividend as according to general rules or non-cumulative dividends as same as ordinary shareholders. Voting – it should state that either the preference shareholders would have the rights to vote in meeting or not. Priority of payment of capital and dividend in relation to other shares or other classes of preference shares – it should state that either the preference shareholders or ordinary shareholder have the priority to the issued or payment of capital or dividends or both of have the same priority? The purpose for such requirement is to enable the prospective and existing preferential shareholders to ascertain easily the rights attached to their shares. Section 66(2) CA’65 mention if default is made in complying with this section the company and every officer of the company who is in default shall be guilty of an offence against this Act. Penalty: Two thousand ringgit CONCLUSION Our assignment topic is â€Å"explain the different classes of shares and the benefits and disadvantages of each type of shares. † In our presentation, we had discussed about the different classes of share that is – ordinary shares and preference shares. We had explained about the definition of ordinary share and preference share and their characteristics. Beside that, we also discuss about the benefits and disadvantages of them. In our opinion, both of them got their advantages and disadvantages. When company is decide whether to issue ordinary shares or preference shares are depending on the situation. If the director wishes to maintain the control over the company then they should issued preferences shares to raised capital rather than issuing ordinary shares. However, the company also needs to consider the ability of paying back the interest and capital if issued the preference shares as they deem as external creditors that have the priority of repayment of capital than ordinary shareholders.

Non-reactive Techniques, Observation, and Experimentation

In research, the question, hypothesis, research design, data collection strategy, and data analysis procedures are rooted in previous literatures and identified before the project begins. Any changes in the proposed design while carrying out the research would be seen as weakening the validity of the research finding and, well, just bad research practice. An explanatory, also called classical experimental, design is seen as the most robust, since it follows procedures that meet the criteria for proving causality.It identifies independent and dependent variable, required random assignment of research subjects to experimental and a control group so that both groups are the same, describes procedures for manipulation of the dependent variable(s), and requires development of pretest and posttest instruments and time frames. If this design is implemented then threats to internal validity (proving causality) are removed.Descriptive designs address correlational relationships between indepe ndent and dependent variables, usually through large-scale surveys. Samples are preferably random (representative of the population being studied); however, these samples are not manipulated into control and experimental groups but are surveyed in their own settings using valid and reliable data collection instruments developed in advance of data collection. Such designs do not address threats to internal validity, but they are considered to have stronger external validity (generalizability of findings from the sample to the population of interest) than the explanatory design (Morris, 2006).The â€Å"Classical† Experimental DesignAll experimental designs are variations on the basic classical experimental design, which consists of two groups, an experimental and a control group, and two variables, an independent and a dependent variable. Units to be analyzed (e.g., subjects) are randomly assigned to each of the experimental and control groups. Units in the experimental group r eceive the independent variable (the treatment condition) that the investigator has manipulated. Contributors in the control group do not obtain the independent variable handling. Pretest and Posttest measures are taken on the independent variable(s), and the control group participants are measures at the same time as the experimental group, although no planned change or manipulation has taken place with regard to the independent variable in the control group.Researchers often use this design when they are interested in assessing change from the pretest to the posttest, as a result of a treatment or intervention. This design is also known as â€Å"pretest-posttest† or â€Å"before-after† design, to differentiate it from a posttest-only design in which one group receives a treatment, whereas the other group receives no treatment and serves as a control.The key difference in the posttest-only design is that neither group is pretested, nor only at the end of the study are both groups measured on the dependent variable. Some researchers favor this latter design over the classic two-group pre- and posttest approach because they are concerned that the pretest measures will sensitize participants or that a learning effect might take place that influences individuals’ performance on the posttest (Babbie, 2005).Ascertaining Causality between VariablesResearchers challenge to establish cause-and-effect associations linking independent and dependent variables by experimental studies.An experiment characterizes a set of processes to decide the fundamental nature of the causal association linking independent and dependent variables. â€Å"Systematically changing the value of the independent variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable characterizes experimentation†(Maxfield & Babbie, 2004). Sometimes, the experiment appraises the outcome of arrangements of independent variable comparative to one or more dependent variables. Not co nsidering the quantity of variables considered, and experiment’s crucial purpose challenges to methodically segregate the result of at least one independent variable connected to at least one dependent variable. Simply when this occurs can one choose which variable(s) truly clarifies the happening (Morris, 2006).To conclude causality, science necessitates that an alteration in the X-variable (independent, influenced variable) go before an adjustment in the Y-variable (dependent, variable predictable for change), with suitable deliberation for scheming other variables that may in reality root the relationship. Perceptive in causal aspects in associations among variables improves one’s perception about experimental data.Controlling all potential factors that influence those effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) requires considerable effort, knowledge about the main factors, and creativity (Lewis-Beck, Bryman, & Liao, 2004).ConclusionIn other words, the fact that a dependent variable and an independent variable are strongly associated cannot always be extended to a logical conclusion that it is the value of the independent variable that is causing the value of the dependent variable to be whatever it is.To achieve causality between variables, one must conduct an experimental study about these variables. Oftentimes, investigational outcome are not constant as they come out. Even though field studies supply purpose insight about probable causes for experiential phenomena, the need of full power innate in such study confines capability to deduce causality. Because neither dynamic treatment of the independent variable by the experimenter nor manage over probable overriding factors happen, no assurance survives that any experiential disparity in the dependent variable essentially resulted from difference in the independent variable (Maxfield & Babbie, 2004).References:Babbie, E. R. (2005). The Basics of Social Research. Belm ont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Lewis-Beck, M. S., Bryman, A., & Liao, T. F. (2004). The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. New York: SAGE.Maxfield, M. G., & Babbie, E. R. (2004). Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Morris, T. (2006). Social Work Research Methods: Four Alternative Paradigms. New York: SAGE. Non-reactive techniques, observation, and experimentation In research, the question, hypothesis, research design, data collection strategy, and data analysis procedures are rooted in previous literatures and identified before the project begins. Any changes in the proposed design while carrying out the research would be seen as weakening the validity of the research finding and, well, just bad research practice. An explanatory, also called classical experimental, design is seen as the most robust, since it follows procedures that meet the criteria for proving causality. It identifies independent and dependent variable, required random assignment of research subjects to experimental and a control group so that both groups are the same, describes procedures for manipulation of the dependent variable(s), and requires development of pretest and posttest instruments and time frames. If this design is implemented then threats to internal validity (proving causality) are removed.Descriptive designs address correlational relationships between indep endent and dependent variables, usually through large-scale surveys. Samples are preferably random (representative of the population being studied); however, these samples are not manipulated into control and experimental groups but are surveyed in their own settings using valid and reliable data collection instruments developed in advance of data collection. Such designs do not address threats to internal validity, but they are considered to have stronger external validity (generalizability of findings from the sample to the population of interest) than the explanatory design (Morris, 2006).The â€Å"Classical† Experimental DesignAll experimental designs are variations on the basic classical experimental design, which consists of two groups, an experimental and a control group, and two variables, an independent and a dependent variable. Units to be analyzed (e.g., subjects) are randomly assigned to each of the experimental and control groups. Units in the experimental group receive the independent variable (the treatment condition) that the investigator has manipulated. Contributors in the control group do not obtain the independent variable handling. Pretest and Posttest measures are taken on the independent variable(s), and the control group participants are measures at the same time as the experimental group, although no planned change or manipulation has taken place with regard to the independent variable in the control group.Researchers often use this design when they are interested in assessing change from the pretest to the posttest, as a result of a treatment or intervention. This design is also known as â€Å"pretest-posttest† or â€Å"before-after† design, to differentiate it from a posttest-only design in which one group receives a treatment, whereas the other group receives no treatment and serves as a control. The key difference in the posttest-only design is that neither group is pretested, nor only at the end of the study a re both groups measured on the dependent variable. Some researchers favor this latter design over the classic two-group pre- and posttest approach because they are concerned that the pretest measures will sensitize participants or that a learning effect might take place that influences individuals’ performance on the posttest (Babbie, 2005).Ascertaining Causality between VariablesResearchers challenge to establish cause-and-effect associations linking independent and dependent variables by experimental studies.An experiment characterizes a set of processes to decide the fundamental nature of the causal association linking independent and dependent variables. â€Å"Systematically changing the value of the independent variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable characterizes experimentation†(Maxfield & Babbie, 2004). Sometimes, the experiment appraises the outcome of arrangements of independent variable comparative to one or more dependent variables. Not considering the quantity of variables considered, and experiment’s crucial purpose challenges to methodically segregate the result of at least one independent variable connected to at least one dependent variable. Simply when this occurs can one choose which variable(s) truly clarifies the happening (Morris, 2006).To conclude causality, science necessitates that an alteration in the X-variable (independent, influenced variable) go before an adjustment in the Y-variable (dependent, variable predictable for change), with suitable deliberation for scheming other variables that may in reality root the relationship. Perceptive in causal aspects in associations among variables improves one’s perception about experimental data.Controlling all potential factors that influence those effects of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s) requires considerable effort, knowledge about the main factors, and creativity (Lewis-Beck, Bryman, & Liao, 2004).ConclusionIn oth er words, the fact that a dependent variable and an independent variable are strongly associated cannot always be extended to a logical conclusion that it is the value of the independent variable that is causing the value of the dependent variable to be whatever it is.To achieve causality between variables, one must conduct an experimental study about these variables. Oftentimes, investigational outcome are not constant as they come out. Even though field studies supply purpose insight about probable causes for experiential phenomena, the need of full power innate in such study confines capability to deduce causality. Because neither dynamic treatment of the independent variable by the experimenter nor manage over probable overriding factors happen, no assurance survives that any experiential disparity in the dependent variable essentially resulted from difference in the independent variable (Maxfield & Babbie, 2004).References:Babbie, E. R. (2005). The Basics of Social Research. Be lmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Lewis-Beck, M. S., Bryman, A., & Liao, T. F. (2004). The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. New York: SAGE.Maxfield, M. G., & Babbie, E. R. (2004). Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.Morris, T. (2006). Social Work Research Methods: Four Alternative Paradigms. New York: SAGE.